CALOTCholecystectomy Anatomy, Learning & Operative Technique Exam zone
Reference

References and further reading

The key guidelines are listed first. Everything else is grouped by the page it supports.

Latest source: Neel et al., JAMA Surg 2026 · about 19 min read · how evidence is marked

Reviewed against its sources on 3 November 2026.

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Key guidelines and consensus statements

These are the documents the site leans on most. Read them in full at least once.

  1. Brunt LM, Deziel DJ, Telem DA, et al. Safe cholecystectomy multi-society practice guideline and state-of-the-art consensus conference on prevention of bile duct injury during cholecystectomy. Ann Surg 2020;272:3-23. SAGES page · DOI
  2. SAGES Safe Cholecystectomy Program: the six strategies. sages.org (accessed 22 October 2026)
  3. SAGES. Guidelines for the clinical application of laparoscopic biliary tract surgery. 2010. sages.org (accessed 22 October 2026; evidence grades predate most trials cited on this site)
  4. SAGES. Clinical spotlight review: laparoscopic common bile duct exploration. sages.org (accessed 22 October 2026)
  5. Kumar SS, et al. SAGES guideline for the use of intraoperative imaging to identify the biliary anatomy during cholecystectomy. Surg Endosc 2025;39:7091-7102. DOI
  6. SAGES. The SAGES intraoperative CBD imaging guideline: what the recommendations actually say. June 2026. sages.org (clarification of the 2025 guideline; accessed 22 October 2026)
  7. Yokoe M, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: diagnostic criteria and severity grading of acute cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018;25:41-54. DOI
  8. Okamoto K, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: flowchart for the management of acute cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018;25:55-72. DOI
  9. Wakabayashi G, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: surgical management of acute cholecystitis: safe steps in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018;25:73-86. DOI
  10. Mori Y, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: management strategies for gallbladder drainage. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018;25:87-95. DOI
  11. Gomi H, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: antimicrobial therapy for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018;25:3-16. DOI
  12. Pisano M, et al. 2020 World Society of Emergency Surgery updated guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute calculus cholecystitis. World J Emerg Surg 2020;15:61. DOI
  13. de’Angelis N, et al. 2020 WSES guidelines for the detection and management of bile duct injury during cholecystectomy. World J Emerg Surg 2021;16:30. DOI
  14. Buxbaum JL, et al. ASGE guideline on the role of endoscopy in the evaluation and management of choledocholithiasis. Gastrointest Endosc 2019;89:1075-1105. DOI
  15. Manes G, et al. Endoscopic management of common bile duct stones: ESGE guideline. Endoscopy 2019;51:472-491. Guideline PDF
  16. NICE Quality Standard QS104: gallstone disease. nice.org.uk
  17. Working Party of the British Society of Gastroenterology, et al. UK guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis. Gut 2005;54 Suppl 3:iii1-9. DOI
  18. NICE guideline NG104: pancreatitis (2018). nice.org.uk
  19. Pearl JP, et al. SAGES guidelines for the use of laparoscopy during pregnancy (historical technical guidance; management recommendations updated in 2024). Surg Endosc 2017;31:3767-3782. DOI
  20. Cassinotti E, et al. European Association for Endoscopic Surgery (EAES) consensus on indocyanine green fluorescence-guided surgery. Surg Endosc 2023;37:1629-1648. DOI
  21. Foley KG, et al. Management and follow-up of gallbladder polyps: updated joint guideline (ESGAR, EAES, EFISDS, ESGE). Eur Radiol 2022;32:3358-3368. DOI
  22. GIRFT, BADS and CPOC. Day Case First delivery pack, version 2.0, September 2024. gettingitrightfirsttime.co.uk
  23. General Medical Council. Decision making and consent. 2020. gmc-uk.org

Anatomy and the Critical View of Safety

  1. Strasberg SM, Hertl M, Soper NJ. An analysis of the problem of biliary injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. J Am Coll Surg 1995;180:101-125. PubMed
  2. Strasberg SM, Brunt LM. Rationale and use of the critical view of safety in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. J Am Coll Surg 2010;211:132-138. PubMed
  3. Strasberg SM, Eagon CJ, Drebin JA. The “hidden cystic duct” syndrome and the infundibular technique of laparoscopic cholecystectomy: the danger of the false infundibulum. J Am Coll Surg 2000;191:661-667. DOI
  4. Sanford DE, Strasberg SM. A simple effective method for generation of a permanent record of the critical view of safety during laparoscopic cholecystectomy by intraoperative “doublet” photography. J Am Coll Surg 2014;218:170-178. DOI
  5. Way LW, Stewart L, Gantert W, et al. Causes and prevention of laparoscopic bile duct injuries: analysis of 252 cases from a human factors and cognitive psychology perspective. Ann Surg 2003;237:460-469. DOI PubMed
  6. Hugh TB, Kelly MD, Mekisic A. Rouvière’s sulcus: a useful landmark in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Br J Surg 1997;84:1253-1254. PubMed 9313706 (abstract not available online; cited for the sulcus-to-duct relationship as described in later reviews)
  7. Sutherland F, Dixon E. The importance of cognitive map placement in bile duct injuries. Can J Surg 2017;60:424-425. DOI
  8. Gupta V, Jain G. Safe laparoscopic cholecystectomy: adoption of universal culture of safety in cholecystectomy. World J Gastrointest Surg 2019;11:62-84. DOI (open access, CC BY-NC 4.0; source of Figures 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 9 and 13 reproduced on this site)
  9. Gupta V. How to achieve the critical view of safety for safe laparoscopic cholecystectomy: technical aspects. Ann Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg 2023;27:201-210. DOI (How-I-Do-It technical article; open access, CC BY-NC 4.0; source of Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 reproduced on this site)
  10. Andall RG, Matusz P, du Plessis M, Ward R, Tubbs RS, Loukas M. The clinical anatomy of cystic artery variations: a review of over 9800 cases. Surg Radiol Anat 2016;38:529-539. DOI
  11. Marano L, Bartoli A, Polom K, Bellochi R, Spaziani A, Castagnoli G. The unwanted third wheel in the Calot’s triangle: incidence and surgical significance of caterpillar hump of right hepatic artery with a systematic review of the literature. J Minim Access Surg 2018 (published online). DOI
  12. Hiatt JR, Gabbay J, Busuttil RW. Surgical anatomy of the hepatic arteries in 1000 cases. Ann Surg 1994;220:50-52. DOI
  13. Samuolyte A, Luksaite-Lukste R, Kvietkauskas M. Anatomical variations of hepatic arteries: implications for clinical practice. Front Surg 2025;12:1593800. DOI
  14. Cawich SO, Sinanan A, Deshpande RR, Gardner MT, Pearce NW, Naraynsingh V. Anatomic variations of the intra-hepatic biliary tree in the Caribbean: a systematic review. World J Gastrointest Endosc 2021;13:170-183. DOI
  15. Cawich SO, Kluger MD, Deshpande RR, et al. Rouvière’s sulcus variants from a clinical perspective: a systematic review. World J Meta-Anal 2026;14(3). DOI
  16. Schnelldorfer T, Sarr MG, Adams DB. What is the duct of Luschka? A systematic review. J Gastrointest Surg 2012;16:656-662. DOI
  17. Northover JMA, Terblanche J. A new look at the arterial supply of the bile duct in man and its surgical implications. Br J Surg 1979;66:379-384. DOI
  18. Singla S, Singh RK, Kumar S, Prasad U, Mandal M, Kumar S. Cholecystectomy associated vasculobiliary injuries: incidence and impact on surgical repair outcomes. Turk J Surg 2025;41:24-30. DOI
  19. Deng SX, et al. Safe laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a systematic review of landmarks, the “second time-out” and the six-clip rule. Art of Surgery 2021;5. DOI
  20. Schiewe JA, Miranda LHG, Romano RM, Romano MA. Anatomic variations of the cystic artery during cholecystectomies: is it important for the surgeon to know? ABCD Arq Bras Cir Dig 2025;38:e1880. DOI
  21. Dhanorkar A, et al. Rouvière’s sulcus as a landmark in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Int Surg J 2026. DOI
  22. Castro PMV, et al. Critical view of safety in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a survey of Brazilian surgeons. ABCD Arq Bras Cir Dig 2018;31:e1385. SciELO
  23. Madani A, et al. Artificial intelligence for intraoperative guidance: using semantic segmentation to identify surgical anatomy during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Ann Surg 2022;276:363-369. DOI
  24. Mascagni P, et al. Artificial intelligence for surgical safety: automatic assessment of the critical view of safety in laparoscopic cholecystectomy using deep learning. Ann Surg 2022;275:955-961. DOI

Indications, workup and timing

  1. Ahmed I, Hudson J, Innes K, et al. Effectiveness of conservative management versus laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the prevention of recurrent symptoms and complications in adults with uncomplicated symptomatic gallstone disease (C-GALL trial): pragmatic, multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2023;383:e075383. DOI
  2. Dasari BV, et al. Surgical versus endoscopic treatment of bile duct stones. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;CD003327. DOI
  3. Sanabria A, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for patients undergoing elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;CD005265. DOI
  4. van Braak WG, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for acute cholecystectomy: PEANUTS II multicentre randomized non-inferiority clinical trial. Br J Surg 2022;109:267-273. DOI
  5. Regimbeau JM, et al. Effect of postoperative antibiotic administration on postoperative infection following cholecystectomy for acute calculous cholecystitis: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014;312:145-154. DOI
  6. da Costa DW, et al. Same-admission versus interval cholecystectomy for mild gallstone pancreatitis (PONCHO): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2015;386:1261-1268. PubMed
  7. Comes DJ, et al. Restrictive strategy versus usual care for cholecystectomy in patients with abdominal pain and gallstones: 5-year follow-up of the SECURE randomized clinical trial. JAMA Surg 2024. DOI
  8. Gurusamy KS, Davidson C, Gluud C, Davidson BR. Early versus delayed laparoscopic cholecystectomy for people with acute cholecystitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;CD005440. DOI
  9. Gutt CN, et al. Acute cholecystitis: early versus delayed cholecystectomy, a multicenter randomized trial (ACDC study). Ann Surg 2013;258:385-393. DOI
  10. Loozen CS, et al. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy versus percutaneous catheter drainage for acute cholecystitis in high risk patients (CHOCOLATE): multicentre randomised clinical trial. BMJ 2018;363:k3965. DOI
  11. Madni TD, et al. Prospective validation of the Parkland grading scale for cholecystitis. Am J Surg 2018;215:625-630. DOI
  12. Madni TD, et al. A comparison of cholecystitis grading scales. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2019;86:471-478. DOI
  13. Wong GYM, et al., AMBROSE Collaborative. 30-day morbidity and mortality after cholecystectomy for benign gallbladder disease (AMBROSE). Ann Surg 2025;281:312-321. DOI
  14. Kamarajah SK, et al. Outcomes of laparoscopic cholecystectomy in elderly patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surg Endosc 2020;34:4727-4740. DOI

Difficulty, bail-out and subtotal cholecystectomy

  1. Nassar AHM, et al. Predicting the difficult laparoscopic cholecystectomy: development and validation of a pre-operative risk score using an objective operative difficulty grading system. Surg Endosc 2020;34:4549-4561. DOI
  2. Griffiths EA, et al. Utilisation of an operative difficulty grading scale for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Surg Endosc 2019;33:110-121. DOI
  3. Sugrue M, et al. Grading operative findings at laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a new scoring system. World J Emerg Surg 2015;10:14. DOI
  4. Sugrue M, et al. Intra-operative gallbladder scoring predicts conversion of laparoscopic to open cholecystectomy: a WSES prospective collaborative study. World J Emerg Surg 2019;14:12. DOI
  5. Baral S, et al. Assessment of G10 intraoperative scoring system for conversion in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a cross-sectional study from Nepal. 2024. PMC10984243
  6. Iwashita Y, Hibi T, Ohyama T, et al. Delphi consensus on bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: an evolutionary cul-de-sac or the birth pangs of a new technical framework? J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2017;24:591-602. DOI
  7. Iwashita Y, et al. What are the appropriate indicators of surgical difficulty during laparoscopic cholecystectomy? Results from a Japan-Korea-Taiwan multinational survey. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2017;24:191-198. DOI
  8. Sutcliffe RP, et al. Preoperative risk factors for conversion from laparoscopic to open cholecystectomy: a validated risk score derived from a prospective UK database of 8820 patients. HPB 2016;18:922-928. DOI
  9. Narvaez Gonzalez HF, et al. Comparative analysis of elective versus emergency cholecystectomy using the Parkland grading scale, Nassar scale and G10 score. Cureus 2025. DOI
  10. Strasberg SM, Pucci MJ, Brunt LM, Deziel DJ. Subtotal cholecystectomy: “fenestrating” vs “reconstituting” subtypes and the prevention of bile duct injury: definition of the optimal procedure in difficult operative conditions. J Am Coll Surg 2016;222:89-96. DOI
  11. Elshaer M, et al. Subtotal cholecystectomy for “difficult gallbladders”: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Surg 2015;150:159-168. DOI
  12. Motter SB, et al. Fenestrating versus reconstituting subtotal cholecystectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surg Endosc 2024;38:7475-7485. DOI
  13. Johnson PL, et al. Fenestrating or reconstituting? The impact of subtotal cholecystectomy technique on postoperative outcomes and subsequent procedures. J Am Coll Surg 2026;242:599-607. DOI
  14. Makhsosi BR, et al. Fenestrating versus reconstituting subtotal cholecystectomy: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Surg 2026;26:673. DOI
  15. Ramírez-Giraldo C, Torres-Cuellar A, Van-Londoño I. State of the art in subtotal cholecystectomy: an overview. Front Surg 2023;10:1142579. DOI
  16. Han HS, et al. Laparoscopic surgery for gallbladder cancer: an expert consensus statement. Dig Surg 2019. DOI (abstract checked)
  17. Strasberg SM, Gouma DJ. “Extreme” vasculobiliary injuries: association with fundus-down cholecystectomy in severely inflamed gallbladders. HPB 2012;14:1-8. DOI
  18. Strasberg SM, Helton WS. An analytical review of vasculobiliary injury in laparoscopic and open cholecystectomy. HPB 2011;13:1-14. DOI
  19. Ahmad G, et al. Laparoscopic entry techniques. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2019;CD006583. DOI
  20. Gurusamy KS, et al. Routine abdominal drainage versus no abdominal drainage for uncomplicated laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;CD006004. DOI

Intra-operative imaging and ICG

  1. van den Bos J, et al. Near-infrared fluorescence cholangiography assisted laparoscopic cholecystectomy (FALCON): an international multicentre randomized controlled trial. Surg Endosc 2023;37:4574-4584. DOI
  2. López-Sánchez J, Garrosa-Muñoz S, Pardo-Aranda F, et al. DOse and administration Time of Indocyanine Green in near-infrared fluorescence cholangiography during laparoscopic cholecystectomy (DOTIG): a randomized clinical trial. Surg Endosc 2025;39:1778-1792. DOI
  3. Pimentel et al. Indocyanine green fluorescent cholangiography in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials. Surgery 2025. PubMed 39891966 (figures quoted from the abstract; full text not re-verified)
  4. De Simone B, Abu-Zidan FM, Boni L, et al. Indocyanine green fluorescence-guided surgery in the emergency setting: the WSES international consensus position paper. World J Emerg Surg 2025;20. DOI
  5. IC-GREEN (indocyanine green for injection) prescribing information, revised January 2026. DailyMed (United States label; the leaflet of the locally supplied product applies)
  6. Dip F, et al. Randomized trial of near-infrared incisionless fluorescent cholangiography. Ann Surg 2019;270:992-999. DOI
  7. Lehrskov LL, et al. Fluorescence or X-ray cholangiography in elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a randomized clinical trial. Br J Surg 2020;107:655-661. DOI
  8. Neel DR, et al. Indocyanine green fluorescence cholangiography and bile duct injury in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. JAMA Surg 2026;161:927-934. DOI
  9. Symeonidis D, et al. Intravenous versus intracholecystic indocyanine green in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a randomized trial. Medicina 2026;62:515. DOI
  10. Haverinen S, et al. Fluorescence cholangiography and conversion in laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Front Surg 2025. DOI

Bile duct injury

  1. Bektas H, et al. Analysis and outcome of 1,412 cases of bile duct injury in a tertiary referral centre: the Hannover classification. Br J Surg 2007;94:1119-1127. DOI
  2. Fingerhut A, et al. ATOM, the all-inclusive, nominal EAES classification of bile duct injuries during cholecystectomy. Surg Endosc 2013;27:4608-4619. DOI
  3. Pucher PH, et al. Outcome trends and safety measures after 30 years of laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a systematic review and pooled data analysis. Surg Endosc 2018;32:2175-2183. DOI
  4. Reinsoo A, et al. Bile duct injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomies: an 11-year population-based study. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg 2023;49:2269-2276. DOI
  5. Schreuder AM, et al. Optimal timing for surgical reconstruction of bile duct injury: meta-analysis. BJS Open 2020;4:776-786. DOI
  6. Hiremath B, et al. Timing of hepaticojejunostomy for bile duct injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cureus 2024. DOI
  7. Calabrese EC, Slater BJ, Awad Z, et al. SAGES–AHPBA 2025 guideline for the surgical management of bile duct injury following cholecystectomy. Surg Endosc 2025. sages.org (accessed 25 October 2026; companion meta-analysis DOI)
  8. Booij KAC, et al. Long-term follow-up and risk factors for strictures after hepaticojejunostomy for bile duct injury. Ann Surg 2018;268:143-150. DOI
  9. Alkhaffaf B, Decadt B. 15 years of litigation following laparoscopic cholecystectomy in England. Ann Surg 2010;251:682-685. DOI

Other complications, special situations, pathways

  1. Gavriilidis P, et al. Spilled gallstones after laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a systematic review. World J Emerg Surg 2022;17. Full text
  2. Merck Manual Professional. Postcholecystectomy syndrome. Reviewed October 2025. merckmanuals.com
  3. de Goede B, et al. Meta-analysis of laparoscopic versus open cholecystectomy for patients with liver cirrhosis and symptomatic cholecystolithiasis. Br J Surg 2013;100:209-216. DOI
  4. Cheng V, Matsushima K, Ashbrook M, et al. Association between trimester and outcomes after cholecystectomy during pregnancy (US National Inpatient Sample, 819 patients). J Am Coll Surg 2021. PubMed search
  5. Koo JGA, et al. Mirizzi syndrome: the past, present and future. Medicina 2024;60:12. Full text
  6. Ethun CG, et al. Association of optimal time interval to re-resection for incidental gallbladder cancer with overall survival. JAMA Surg 2017;152:143-149. DOI
  7. Barazanchi AWH, et al. Evidence-based management of pain after laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a PROSPECT review update. Br J Anaesth 2018;121:787-803. DOI
  8. Bourgeois C, Oyaert L, Van de Velde M, et al. Pain management after laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a systematic review and procedure-specific postoperative pain management (PROSPECT) recommendations. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2024, published online 12 August 2024. DOI
  9. Vaughan J, Gurusamy KS, Davidson BR. Day-surgery versus overnight stay surgery for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;CD006798. DOI
  10. Royal College of Surgeons of England. Intercollegiate MRCS examination. rcseng.ac.uk
  11. Joint Committee on Intercollegiate Examinations. FRCS examination format. jcie.org.uk

Training, new platforms, duct exploration and medicolegal

  1. Moore MJ, Bennett CL. The learning curve for laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The Southern Surgeons Club. Am J Surg 1995;170:55-59. Record
  2. George BC, Bohnen JD, Williams RG, et al. Readiness of US general surgery residents for independent practice. Ann Surg 2017;266:582-594. DOI
  3. DaRosa DA, Zwischenberger JB, Meyerson SL, et al. A theory-based model for teaching and assessing residents in the operating room. J Surg Educ 2013;70:24-30. DOI
  4. Nagendran M, Gurusamy KS, Aggarwal R, Loizidou M, Davidson BR. Virtual reality training for surgical trainees in laparoscopic surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;(8):CD006575. DOI
  5. Seymour NE, Gallagher AG, Roman SA, et al. Virtual reality training improves operating room performance: results of a randomized, double-blinded study. Ann Surg 2002;236:458-464. DOI (abstract not retrievable for checking; cited for design and direction of effect only)
  6. Mascagni P, Vardazaryan A, Alapatt D, et al. Artificial intelligence for surgical safety: automatic assessment of the critical view of safety in laparoscopic cholecystectomy using deep learning. Ann Surg 2022;275:955-961. Record
  7. 2024 CVS Challenge Consortium. The SAGES Critical View of Safety Challenge: a global benchmark for AI-assisted surgical quality assessment. arXiv 2509.17100, 2025 (pre-print). arXiv
  8. Intercollegiate Surgical Curriculum Programme. General surgery: index procedures and indicative numbers (Appendix 4). iscp.ac.uk (accessed 22 October 2026)
  9. American College of Surgeons and SAGES. Joint statement on FLS completion for general surgeons who perform laparoscopy. March 2012. facs.org
  10. Campbell B, Lambrianides A, et al. Open cholecystectomy: exposure and confidence of surgical trainees and new fellows. Int J Surg 2018;51:218-222. Record
  11. Sinha S, Hofman D, Stoker DL, et al. Epidemiological study of provision of cholecystectomy in England from 2000 to 2009: retrospective analysis of Hospital Episode Statistics. Surg Endosc 2013;27:162-175. DOI
  12. Bingmer K, Ofshteyn A, Stein SL, Steinhagen E. Is the increase in laparoscopic procedures affecting resident open surgical experience? SAGES 2017 annual meeting abstract. sages.org
  13. Kalata S, Thumma JR, Norton EC, Dimick JB, Sheetz KH. Comparative safety of robotic-assisted vs laparoscopic cholecystectomy. JAMA Surg 2023;158:1303-1310. Summary (full paper behind publisher access; figures taken from the abstract as reported)
  14. Mullens CL, Sheskey S, Thumma JR, et al. Patient complexity and bile duct injury after robotic-assisted vs laparoscopic cholecystectomy. JAMA Netw Open 2025;8:e251705. ACS summary
  15. Mullens CL, et al. Robotic-assisted versus laparoscopic cholecystectomy and bile duct injury in Medicare beneficiaries, 2020 to 2023. JAMA Surg 2026 (published online 27 May 2026). Summary (title paraphrased; verify against the journal)
  16. Editorial: Robotic-assisted cholecystectomy: stepping stone to expertise or vogue? Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr 2024. Full text
  17. Marks JM, Phillips MS, Tacchino R, et al. Single-incision laparoscopic cholecystectomy is associated with improved cosmesis scoring at the cost of significantly higher hernia rates: 1-year results of a prospective randomized, multicenter, single-blinded trial. J Am Coll Surg 2013;216:1037-1047. Record
  18. Aroori S, Andrei T, Nassar A, et al., on behalf of the R-ALiCE Collaborators. Safety and outcomes of laparoscopic bile duct exploration: a UK-wide multi-centre study (R-ALiCE). Surg Endosc 2026 (published online 13 January 2026). DOI
  19. Zheng B, Lu Y, Li E, Bai Z, Zhang K, Li J. Comparison of the efficacy of LTCBDE and LCBDE for common bile duct stones: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Surg 2025;11:1412334. DOI
  20. Gurusamy KS, Koti R, Davidson BR. T-tube drainage versus primary closure after laparoscopic common bile duct exploration. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;(6):CD005641. DOI
  21. Gartland RM, Bloom JP, Fong ZV, et al. What have we learned from malpractice claims involving the surgical management of benign biliary disease? A 128 million dollar question. Ann Surg 2019;269:785-791. DOI
  22. Cirocchi R, Panata L, Griffiths EA, et al. Injuries during laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a scoping review of the claims and civil action judgements. J Clin Med 2021;10:5238. Full text
  23. Gurusamy KS, Bong JJ, Fusai G, Davidson BR. Methods of cystic duct occlusion during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(10):CD006807. DOI
  24. Mohamedahmed AY. A systematic review and meta-analysis of bag extraction versus direct extraction for retrieval of gallbladder after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Cureus 2023;15:e35466. DOI (DOI inferred from the article number; the PMC record is PMC10049925)
  25. Aloia TA, Járufe N, Javle M, et al. Gallbladder cancer: expert consensus statement. HPB 2015;17:681-690. DOI
  26. Bastiaenen VP, Tuijp JE, van Dieren S, et al. Oncological safety and potential cost savings of routine versus selective histopathological examination following cholecystectomy (FANCY). Br J Surg 2022;109:355-362. Cited via the authors’ reply (BJS 2022) and Rosenberg, Laparosc Surg 2023; primary paper not opened for checking
  27. Huffman JL, Schenker S. Acute acalculous cholecystitis: a review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010;8:15-22. (Cited as a review; full text not opened for checking)
  28. Nair A, Al-Aamri HHM, Borkar N, Rangaiah M, Haque PW. Application of enhanced recovery after surgery pathways in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy with and without common bile duct exploration: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J 2023;23:148-157. DOI
  29. Istrate AM, Serban D, Doran H, et al. Enhanced recovery after surgery in laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a systematic review. Chirurgia (Bucur) 2024;119:318. Full text

Imaging, cholangitis and pancreatitis

  • Kiewiet JJS, Leeuwenburgh MMN, Bipat S, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic performance of imaging in acute cholecystitis. Radiology 2012;264:708-720. DOI
  • de Oliveira GS, Torri GB, Gandolfi FE, et al. Computed tomography versus ultrasound for the diagnosis of acute cholecystitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Radiol 2024. DOI
  • Infectious Diseases Society of America. 2024 guideline update on the risk assessment, diagnostic imaging, and microbiological evaluation of complicated intra-abdominal infections: diagnostic imaging for suspected acute cholecystitis or acute cholangitis. Clin Infect Dis 2024. DOI
  • Gurusamy KS, Giljaca V, Takwoingi Y, et al. Ultrasound versus liver function tests for diagnosis of common bile duct stones. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015;CD011548. DOI
  • Giljaca V, Gurusamy KS, Takwoingi Y, et al. Endoscopic ultrasound versus magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography for common bile duct stones. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015;CD011549. DOI
  • Hope WW, Fanelli R, Walsh DS, et al. SAGES clinical spotlight review: intraoperative cholangiography. sages.org
  • Kiriyama S, Kozaka K, Takada T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: diagnostic criteria and severity grading of acute cholangitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018;25:17-30. DOI
  • Miura F, Okamoto K, Takada T, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: initial management of acute biliary infection and flowchart for acute cholangitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018;25:31-40. DOI
  • Gomi H, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: antimicrobial therapy for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2018. PubMed
  • Overdevest AG, Sieswerda E, Haal S, et al. Antibiotic treatment for 1 day versus 4-7 days in patients with acute cholangitis after adequate endoscopic biliary drainage (COBRA): study protocol. Trials 2026;27:222. DOI. Results presented at Digestive Disease Week 2026 (report); not yet published in full.
  • Banks PA, Bollen TL, Dervenis C, et al. Classification of acute pancreatitis 2012: revision of the Atlanta classification and definitions by international consensus. Gut 2013;62:102-111. gut.bmj.com
  • Schepers NJ, et al. Urgent endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography with sphincterotomy versus conservative treatment in predicted severe acute gallstone pancreatitis (APEC). Lancet 2020;396:167-176. DOI
  • Tenner S, Vege SS, Sheth SG, et al. American College of Gastroenterology guidelines: management of acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2024;119:419-437. DOI
  • da Costa DW, Bouwense SA, Schepers NJ, et al. Same-admission versus interval cholecystectomy for mild gallstone pancreatitis (PONCHO). Lancet 2015;386:1261-1268. DOI
  • Kumar SS, et al. SAGES guidelines for the use of laparoscopy during pregnancy. Surg Endosc 2024;38:2947–2963. DOI
  • Colling KP, et al. Surgical Infection Society Guidelines for Antibiotic Use in Patients Undergoing Cholecystectomy for Gallbladder Disease. Surg Infect 2022. PubMed
  • National Cancer Institute. Gallbladder Cancer Treatment (PDQ), health professional version: TNM staging definitions. NCI: gallbladder cancer staging.

Further reading

  • Strasberg SM. A teaching program for the “culture of safety in cholecystectomy” and avoidance of bile duct injury. J Am Coll Surg 2013;217:751. A short statement of the whole philosophy.
  • The SAGES Safe Cholecystectomy Didactic Modules (free online, sages.org): video-based teaching of the CVS, bail-out and cholangiography.
  • Tokyo Guidelines 2018 full set, open access in the Journal of Hepato-Biliary-Pancreatic Science, volume 25, 2018.
  • CholeS study group publications (UK, 2016 onward) on variation in practice and outcomes of cholecystectomy.
Most recent sources listed: Mullens et al., JAMA Surg 2026; Aroori et al. (R-ALiCE), Surg Endosc 2026; Neel et al., JAMA Surg 2026; Symeonidis et al., Medicina 2026; Makhsosi et al., BMC Surg 2026. List compiled October 2026.